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A biography of a 19th-century German scientist renowned for the co-discovery of the second law of thermodynamics and his invention of the ophthalmoscope. The vo

Hermann von Helmholtz (1821-1894) was a polymath of dazzling intellectual range and energy. Renowned for his co-discovery of the second law of thermodynamics an

Two seemingly contradictory tendencies have accompanied the development of the natural sciences in the past 150 years. On the one hand, the natural sciences hav

Hermann von Helmholtz was a towering figure of nineteenth-century scientific and intellectual life. Best known for his achievements in physiology and physics, h

During the 19th century, much of the modern scientific enterprise took shape: scientific disciplines were formed, institutions and communities were founded and